Tracing the establishment and evolution of Buddhism in Kashmir from the Mauryan to the Kushan era and beyond

Since ancient times, the Kashmir valley has been the hotbed of religious activities. Almost all the major religious traditions, including the Naga cult, Shaivism, Buddhism, Islam, Sikhism and others, have been observed in Kashmir.

To this day, it is uncertain when precisely Buddhism became established in Kashmir. It is widely accepted among scholars that Buddhism was introduced to Kashmir during the Mauryan era when King Asoka sent Majjhantika to spread Buddhism in the region. However, upon his arrival, Majjhantika discovered around 12 Viharas in Kashmir. A number of these Viharas were constructed by the indigenous monarch Surrendra, who reigned before Asoka and after the Buddha. (N.K. Singh)

Kashmir’s renowned chronicler Kalhana records the construction of two Viharas by King Surrendra, one in the contemporary Soura region of Srinagar and the other across the Zojila in the Dards region. Formerly referred to as Narendrabhavana, this vihara. (Kalhana & P N Ganhar)

Kashmir emerged as a prominent hub for Buddhist scholarship shortly after the demise of Buddha. To enlighten themselves with Buddhist knowledge, the seekers travelled from both far and nearby locations. The academics hailing from the neighbouring countries deemed their education incomplete without acquiring knowledge from the esteemed educators of Kashmir. To propagate the Buddhist philosophy in Ladakh, Gilgit, Yarkand, Kashgar, and other regions, Kashmiri monks and scholars bravely traversed formidable mountains. (P N Ganhar)

Within India, the emergence of Buddhism can be understood as a direct response or opposition to the existing unchanging and rigid socio-cultural and religious structure. The emergence of Buddhism in Kashmir may be attributed exclusively to the political support provided by monarchs like Surrendra, Asoka, Kanishka, and others. The construction of numerous stupas and monasteries in Kashmir by Asoka was documented by Huien Tsang, who also visited the region in the seventh century A.D. Some of these structures endured until the seventh century A.D.

Following the death of Asoka, Buddhism lost its royal support. However, with the Kushans occupying the valley, Buddhism regained prominence. Under the patronage of Kanishka, the Fourth Buddhist Council was convened in Kundalvan Vihara, likely Harwan, located near Srinagar. Regarding Buddhism in Kashmir, this development was significant since it once again attracted eminent intellectuals such as Vasumitra (head of the council), Ashvagosha, and other scholars to the valley. During the Kushan dynasty, Buddhism in Kashmir gained significant importance, making it widely considered the golden age of the religion. The renowned Buddhist philosopher Nagarjuna resided in Kashmir during the reign of the Kushans.

Buddhism in Kashmir before Mauryas:

There is no unanimity among scholars regarding the exact date of the introduction of Buddhism into Kashmir. As per Kalhana, the Kashmiri Chronicler, Surrendra was the inaugural King of Kashmir who had patronage for Buddhism before the coming of Asoka. The Rajatarangni and Divyavadana schools assert that Buddhism had already become widespread in Kashmir before the arrival of missionaries dispatched by Asoka. Upon his arrival, Majjhantika discovered approximately twelve Viharas in Kashmir. Several of these Viharas were constructed under the patronage of King Surrendra. Kalhana states that Surrendra constructed two Viharas in Kashmir, one in Saurasa (now Soura in Srinagar District) and another in Sauraka in Dard land, modern-day Zojilla. Narendrabhavana was the name given to the vihara constructed at Zojilla. Kalhana asserts that Surrendra became a disciple of Buddha, abstained from immorality, and remained single throughout his entire life.

Following the demise of Surrendra, the jurisdiction of Kashmir was inherited by Godhra, who was subsequently succeeded by Suvarna and Janaka. Janaka, the patron of Buddhism, is renowned for his construction of a Vihara at Jolur, what is now known as “Zolur or Zaloora” in Sopore Tehsil of Baramulla district. Following the rule of the formidable Shachinara, son of Janaka, the kingdom of Kashmir was established under the authority of King Ashoka,a prominent figure in the Indian subcontinent.

Buddhism in Kashmir During Mauryas:

The Sri Lankan Buddhist chronicle Mahavamsa notes that Majjhantika, a disciple of Ananda and a native of Varanasi, brought Buddhism to Kashmir. The propagation of Buddhism in Kashmir was entrusted to him by Asoka. Through his two-decade-long stay in Kashmir, Majjhantika successfully converted a significant number of individuals to Buddhism. This is corroborated by the Tibetean literary work Dul-va and the archaeological records of Hieun Tsang. According to Divyavadana, Asoka extended invitations to intellectuals from Kashmir to participate in the third Buddhist Council. Tamasvana was the residence of these intellectuals. Kalhana indicates that Kashmir was a constituent of the Mauryan kingdom during the reign of Asoka. He further asserts that Asoka constructed the city of Srinagri, today known as Srinagar, near Pandrethan and erected several stupas and viharas in that area.

Under the rule of Asoka, Buddhism attained remarkable prosperity in Kashmir. Within that specific timeframe, all the caste divisions disappeared from Kashmir. According to historical accounts, Jaloka-son of Asoka assumed the administrative authority of Kashmir. Initially, Jaloka did not support Buddhism, but after being advised by Kritya, a Buddhist ritualist, his perspective on Buddhism shifted and he later constructed a Vihara near Baramulla. The name given to this vihara was “Krityashramavihara.” Further details on Krityashramavihara are also provided by Kshemendra, a writer from Kashmir. Krityashrama, also known as Kitsahom or Kitchhama, is a settlement located in the Baramulla District on the left bank of the Jhelum River (officially Vitasta). According to historical accounts, in 211 B.C., Vijayasambhava, the grandson of Kastuna, the son of Asoka, constructed a monastery that housed the revered remains of Buddha, which were transported from Kashmir by Vairochna. Hiuen Tsang states that Kashmir was home to several monasteries where approximately 5000 Buddhist monks resided. According to Kalhana, Asoka constructed over 500 stupas in Kashmir, with four of them housing the physical remains of Buddha.

The historical trajectory of Buddhism following the downfall of the Mauryas remains somewhat ambiguous. Milindapanho, a debate between Nagasena and Indo-Greek King Milinda or Menander, provides evidence that it likely endured the severe attacks of that era. Following the dialogue with Nagasena, Milinda wholeheartedly adopted Buddhism and attained the rank of Arhat. To accommodate his fellow believers, he constructed a religious building known as a Milindavihara. Subsequently, there is limited knowledge of Buddhism in Kashmir until the later Kushanera

Buddhism In Kashmir During Kushans:

Buddhism achieved its highest point in Kashmir during the rule of the Kushans, namely under the rule of Kanishka I. Kalhana records indicate that in the first century A.D., the Kushans governed Kashmir. Three Turusha kings, Huska, Juska, and Kanishka, established three towns known as Huskapura (now Ushkara), Juskapura (now Zakoora), and Kanishkapura (now Kanispura) accordingly. As evidenced by the fourth Buddhist council held in Kundalvan (modern Harwan) in Kashmir under the reign of Kanishka, Kashmir emerged as a significant hub of Buddhism throughout the Kushan period. Vasumitra presided over the fourth Buddhist Council, with Asvagosha serving as his deputy. Following the council assembly, a group of five hundred Arhats, Bodhisattvas, and five Hundred Pandits compiled a commentary on Tipitikas known as Vibhasha. Kalhana and Chinese sources provide evidence that throughout the Kushan era, numerous eminent Buddhist intellectuals such as Nagarjuna, Asvagosha, Vasubandhu, Vasumitra, Dharmatrata, Sanghabhadra, and others resided in Kashmir.

Kushans introduced the Mahayana school of Buddhism to Kashmir, which contrasted with the former dominance of the Sarvastavada School of Buddhism in Kashmir before the Kushans. The primary influence of the Mahayana school was the establishment of Sanskrit as the official language of Buddhism, resulting in a significant influx of Brahman converts to the religion. The converse effect of this was that the Hindu theistic ideas infiltrated Buddhism unknowingly and without conscious awareness. The thriving condition of Buddhism in Kashmir is well demonstrated by the archaeological findings we have observed at Harwan. The Harwan excavation has produced artefacts including stupas, inscriptions, and brick tiles written in Kharoshti and Brahmi scripts. Another Buddhist site, Huvishkapura (now Ushkara), has yielded a substantial collection of clay statues depicting Buddha, Boddhisatvas, and monks from the later Kushan period. The aforementioned factors have led to the recognition of the Kushan period as the Golden Age of Buddhism in Kashmir.

Buddhism in Kashmir after Kushans:

Following the conclusion of the Kushan authority in Kashmir, Buddhism was no longer supported by the royal authorities. Abhimanyu’s rule was marked by consecutive severe winters, which led to the death and displacement of a significant number of Buddhist monks from Kashmir. Buddhist practices in Kashmir were significantly disrupted by antagonistic rulers such as Nara and Mihirakula. They subjected Buddhists to persecution and demolished a significant number of viharas and monasteries. Following Mihirakula’s rule, Buddhism in Kashmir had a resurgence under the leadership of Meghavana, a firm adherent of Buddhism. His reign witnessed the establishment of numerous Buddhist monasteries and viharas, with Amritabhavana Vihara being the most renowned among them. Following the demise of Meghavana Buddhism in Kashmir, royal support was once again withdrawn, but this time there was no more persecution of Buddhists documented.

Under the rule of the Gonanda and Karkota dynasties, Buddhism saw a partial revival. The monarchs of these dynasties practised religious tolerance towards all faiths. Throughout their reign, numerous Viharas were built and existing ones were restored. Lalitaditya Muktapida of the Karkota dynasty displayed a profound commitment to Buddhism and constructed several Buddhist institutions, with the one in his capital Parihaspora being particularly renowned. In addition, he constructed a monumental monastery with a Stupa at Huvishkapura (Ushkur) in close proximity to Baramulla. The Kalhana and Chinese records of Hiuen Tsang and Ou-Kong, who visited Kashmir under the Karkota kingdom, provide evidence of this prosperous age of Buddhism.

The endeavours of Shankaracharya, along with inherent challenges, resulted in the near eradication of Buddhism throughout India, including Kashmir. Furthermore, the subsequent monarchs likewise discontinued their support for Buddhism in Kashmir. The ruler of Kashmir, Kshemagupta, demolished Jaindera Vihara and constructed a Shiva Temple using its materials. The Lohara dynasty undertook no efforts to reestablish Buddhism, and Harsha was particularly antagonistic towards the religion. Therefore, as a result of these factors, Buddhism declined in Kashmir and resurged in Ladakh.

Impact of Buddhism on Kashmir:

Buddhism exerted significant influence on Kashmir, namely in terms of religious and socio-cultural dimensions. Throughout the period when Buddhism was present in Kashmir, it successfully eradicated societal disparities. The introduction of the notion of non-violence to Kashmir was facilitated by Buddhism. Influenced by Buddhism, a significant number of architectural institutions were built in Kashmir. As described by Kalhana, Asoka constructed around 500 stupas, four of which contained the physical remains of Buddha. Key Buddhist institutions constructed in ancient Kashmir include Narendrabhavana, Krityashramvihara, Jayendravihara, Amritabhavan, and others. In addition to these, several renowned stupas were constructed in Parihaspura, Harwan, Huvishkapura, and other locations.

Some five hundred Arhats, five Boddhisatvas, and five hundred pandits, under the influence of Buddhism, compiled a commentary on Tipitikas I.e. Vibhasha. Kashmiri academics gained recognition as Vibhasha Sastra due to their proficiency in producing comments on Buddhist scriptures. Buddhism attracted numerous eminent thinkers such as Asvagosha, Nagarjuna, Vasumitra, Vasubandhu, and others to the valley, who contributed their profound understanding of Buddhism to its culture. A substantial body of literature was generated in Kashmir under the influence of Buddhism. Some of the primary texts created in Kashmir under the influence of Buddhism included Abhidharma-Mahavibhashashastra by Asvagosha, Abhidharama’s fundamental six-volume scripture by Vasubandhu, and Vaibashika (a commentary on Saravastavada philosophy).

Moreover, a substantial quantity of Buddhist writings were translated into Chinese in Kashmir. With the advent of Mahayana Buddhism in Kashmir under Kanishka, the Sanskrit language gained prominence as it was the medium of propagation for Mahayana Buddhism, unlike prior schools of Buddhism. The adoption of Sanskrit as the official language of Buddhism resulted in the ascendancy of Brahmans over the faith. One consequence of this was that Buddhism, like some certain Hindu sects, established a revered pantheon due to the inability of Brahman converts to completely abandon their polytheistic heritage.

The writer is a research scholar at the Department of History & Culture, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi

Younus Yousuf Ganie