Fiqh has guided Muslims for centuries. This article traces the evolution of Islamic jurisprudence from the era of the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) to the sophisticated legal codes of the Ottomans. These reasoned interpretations of early scholars built a sophisticated legal system that still resonates in the modern world.
By Tallat Ul Sideeqa
Fiqh, or Islamic jurisprudence, has been an ethical and moral framework for Muslim civilisation for more than fourteen centuries. It emerged during the era of Prophet Mohammad (Peace Be Upon Him), flourished during the era of the Abbasid Empire, and reached its peak of institutionalisation and sophistication during the period of the Ottoman Empire.
Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) was both the Messenger of Allah and the arbiter of justice. The early rulings of Islam were wholly formed upon the Qur’an and Sunnah. However, during the era of the Rightly Guided Caliphs, Islam spread beyond Arabia, and new issues started appearing. The companions began exercising Ijtihad – reasoned interpretation – when no direct text from revelation existed, ensuring that the essence of justice and mercy remained intact.
As the Muslim world expanded, two major centres of Islamic legal thought emerged: Madina and Kufa. In Madina, Imam Malik (RA) developed a tradition rooted in the practices of the people, which gave rise to the Maliki school. On the other hand, in Kufa, the situation was more complex, as the hadith were less accessible, and scholars relied more on reasoning and analogy (Qiyas). This led to the foundation of the Hanafi school, known for its rational approach to jurisprudence. Despite methodological differences between these centres, both aimed to uphold the core of Shariah.
By the period of the Abbasid Empire, Fiqh had developed drastically, as the major schools of thought — Hanafi, Maliki, Hanbali, and Shafi’i — were greatly refined. This era also saw the rise in the number of Qazis and Muftis and the establishment of various institutions that made the application of Shariah structured and accessible across many regions.
When the Ottomans took leadership, they adopted the Hanafi school of thought as their legal doctrine, implementing it into state governance. They established many courts, appointed judges, and issued fatwas to regulate public and criminal matters. One of their greatest and most enduring contributions to Islamic civilisation was Majmūlah al-Ahkam al-Adliyyah, a 19th-century codification of Hanafi Fiqh that represented Islamic law in a formal way. This marked one of the earliest attempts to balance Shariah with the modern legal system. It was later adopted by various Muslim-majority countries such as Pakistan, Egypt, Jordan, and Syria.
From the simplicity of Madina to the majesty of Istanbul, the evolution of Fiqh stands as a testament to Islam’s endurance. Though empires have fallen, the principles of Islamic law remain unchanged.
Fiqh has adapted to the needs of every age without losing its spiritual foundation. Its journey is proof of the struggles of the Muslim community to uphold divine guidance while engaging with the realities of the modern world.
Above all, the story of Fiqh traces the timeless journey of Islamic civilisation, rooted in revelation, sustained by faith, and shaped by reason.
Tallat Ul Sideeqa is a student of Islamic Jurisprudence at the International Islamic University Malaysia. She is from Baramulla, Kashmir. Her areas of interest include Islamic history, Fiqh, Usul al-Fiqh, and the intellectual heritage of Muslim civilisation. She is passionate about exploring how classical Islamic scholarship continues to shape modern thought.
ta*************@***il.com