The Zehanpora (2000-year-old Buddhist complex) discovery, featured in PM Modi’s Mann Ki Baat, has catalysed efforts to establish an on-site museum and transform the region into a hub for heritage and pilgrimage tourism. Non-invasive techniques like LiDAR mapping are now being used to safeguard sites without disturbing the surrounding landscape. The story of Kashmir is an essential chapter in the global history of civilisation.
Syed Akhoon
The history of archaeology in Jammu & Kashmir is not merely a record of excavations; it is a complex palimpsest where layers of Neolithic, Buddhist, Brahmanical, and Islamic civilisations overlap. For centuries, the valley remained a mysterious “shrine in the clouds” to the outside world, a landscape where myth and history were inextricably linked. The transition from pure legend to scientific inquiry began with the curious gaze of early pilgrims and reached its zenith with the methodical rigour of the 19th and early 20th centuries. This intellectual journey of rediscovering Kashmir’s past moved from the anecdotal logs of spiritual travellers to the birth of systematic archaeology, proving that the valley is one of the world’s most significant cultural crossroads.
The earliest phase of archaeological inquiry was dominated by exploratory surveys rather than scientific excavation. Long before the European arrival, the foundations of Kashmiri historiography were laid by Eastern pilgrims. In the 7th century, the devoted Chinese monk Xuanzang entered the kingdom, describing it as a natural fortress encircled by towering mountains. His accounts in the Great Tang Records provide a detailed inventory of nearly 100 monasteries and 5,000 monks, specifically noting the site of the great Buddhist council held under the Kushan emperor Kanishka. His vivid descriptions of stupas and the legend of the saint Madhyantika draining the ancient Satisar lake provided the first topographical blueprints for future researchers. This spiritual geography was echoed by others, such as the Korean monk Hyecho, whose 8th-century observations of “deserted temples” provided a crucial chronological marker for the gradual decline of Buddhist patronage in the valley.
As the classical era faded, the medieval travellers noted a shifting religious and political landscape. The renowned Persian scholar Al-Biruni, writing in 1030 CE, identified Kashmir as a land of “perpetual spring” and a strategic refuge for Indian traditions. He noted that while Buddhism was receding, Shaivism had become the dominant religious force. His observations on the inhabitants’ woollen garments and their reliance on rice as a staple food provide valuable ethnographic continuity that links the ancient past to the modern day. Even Western classical scholars, from Megasthenes to Ptolemy, had caught glimpses of the region, referring to it as “Kasperia” or “Kaspeira”. Their mentions of the region’s fertility and fine wool suggest that Kashmir’s global reputation for textiles and its organised political identity had deep roots in antiquity, long before the formalisation of the Silk Road.
The intellectual transformation of Kashmir from a landscape of evocative ruins into a historically intelligible region began in earnest with Alexander Cunningham. More than a surveyor, Cunningham was the architect of archaeological consciousness in India. In 1848, he introduced a system of empirical observation grounded in measurement and typology, transforming ruins into data. When confronted with the imposing remains of the Martand Sun Temple, Cunningham discerned a “classical” aesthetic, drawing parallels with Greco-Roman architecture due to the use of fluted shafts and pediments. By synchronising material remains with historical chronology, he identified sites like Avantipur and Parihaspora with the great kings Avantivarman and Lalitaditya Muktapida, respectively. His work ensured that Kashmir was documented not as a collection of curiosities, but as critical evidence in the reconstruction of India’s civilizational past.
If Cunningham laid the structural foundations, Aurel Stein infused the discipline with intellectual depth and methodological precision. Stein’s work represents a paradigm shift; he did not just document monuments but reconstructed historical landscapes as lived entities. His revolutionary methodology involved “reading the text against the terrain.” By taking Kalhana’s Rajatarangini—the 12th-century chronicle of kings—into the field, Stein spent seasons camping at locations like Mohand Marg, meticulously correlating literary descriptions with physical geography. Through this rigour, he identified ancient sites like Pandrethan and Kanishkapura, proving the reliability of historical texts when approached with scientific scepticism. Stein’s work situated Kashmir not as an isolated valley, but as a dynamic node within a vast network of cultural exchange linking the Indian plains to Central Asia and Tibet.
The 20th century marked the transition from “surveying” to the “era of the spade,” where systematic excavations fundamentally altered our understanding of human history. The most ground-breaking outcome occurred at Burzahom, where excavations revealed a Neolithic culture dating back to 3000 BCE. Archaeologists uncovered unique pit-dwellings—sunken shelters designed to survive harsh Himalayan winters—alongside polished stone tools and bone needles. The discovery of ritual dog burials alongside their masters suggested a complex spiritual belief system predating organised religion. Similarly, excavations at Harwan yielded exquisite terracotta tiles depicting men in Central Asian attire and exotic animals, confirming that 2ndcentury Kashmir was a cosmopolitan hub of the Sarvastivada school of Buddhism. These excavations proved that the “Kashmiri-Style” of art and architecture was a sophisticated fusion that would eventually influence the artistic traditions of Tibet and Western China.
Ultimately, the evolution of archaeology in Jammu & Kashmir reflects a gradual sharpening of intellectual vision. From the spiritual journals of Xuanzang to the scientific maps of Aurel Stein and the systematic digs at Burzahom and Harwan, each layer of soil removed has revealed a narrative of resilience and creativity. These pioneers transformed Kashmir from a terrain of memory and legend into a field of rigorous scientific inquiry. Today, the legacy of these early explorers continues to guide modern researchers as they apply new technologies to uncover the valley’s secrets. The silent stones of Martand and the deep pits of Burzahom remain as monuments to human curiosity, proving that the story of Kashmir is an essential chapter in the global history of civilisation.
Modern Resurgence: The Zehanpora Discovery and National Recognition
The narrative of Kashmiri archaeology has entered a vibrant new chapter in the 21st century, transitioning from the preservation of known sites to the discovery of entirely “forgotten” civilisations through cutting-edge technology. A landmark event in this contemporary era is the recent excavation at Zehanpora (often referred to as Zehanpura) in the Baramulla district. For decades, local residents perceived certain elevated mounds in the area as natural geological formations or mythical sites. However, a joint mission by the Department of Archives, Archaeology and Museums (J&K) and the University of Kashmir utilised drone-based aerial surveys and satellite mapping to confirm that these were, in fact, massive man-made structures. The systematic excavation that followed unearthed a sprawling Buddhist monastic complex dating back 2,000 years to the Kushan period. The site has yielded multiple stupas, apsidal structures, and terracotta artefacts that mirror the Gandharan architectural style, reinforcing the theory that Zehanpora was a critical node on the ancient trade and pilgrimage routes connecting Kashmir to Gandhara and Central Asia.
This modern breakthrough gained significant national attention when it was featured by Prime Minister Narendra Modi in the 129th episode of his radio program, Mann Ki Baat, in December 2025. The Prime Minister highlighted the discovery as a “proud moment” for India, underscoring how archival research and international collaboration are reshaping our understanding of the past. He shared a fascinating detail regarding the “rediscovery” of the site: an old, blurred 19th-century photograph found thousands of miles away in a French museum’s archives. This archival photograph, which clearly depicted three Buddhist stupas in the Baramulla region, served as the vital clue that led modern archaeologists to revisit the mounds of Zehanpora. By connecting a century-old visual record with modern scientific probes, the excavation has not only validated the “lost” history of the Kushan era but has also re-emphasised Kashmir’s historic identity as a global confluence of civilisations—a theme the Prime Minister noted is essential for connecting the current generation to their ancestral roots.
The outcomes of the Zehanpora excavation are redefining the historiography of North Kashmir. Beyond the recovery of physical ruins, the project has served as a platform for scientific heritage exploration, utilising non-invasive techniques like LiDAR mapping to safeguard the site without disturbing the surrounding landscape. Archaeologists believe that this discovery is just the tip of the iceberg, with potential links to the elusive Kushan capital, Huvishkapura. The national spotlight provided by Mann Ki Baat has catalysed efforts to establish an on-site museum, aimed at transforming the region into a major hub for heritage and pilgrimage tourism. As recent as 2026, ongoing exploration in nearby areas like Khanpura and Semthan continues to bridge gaps in the historical record, ensuring that the legacy of early pioneers like Cunningham and Stein is being carried forward by a new generation of scientists armed with the tools of the future.
The writer is a heritage professional with three decades of experience in the Department of Archives, Archaeology, and Museums, Jammu and Kashmir
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